Over the past few decades, scientific research has painted a clear and troubling picture of the health and social consequences of alcohol consumption. The World Health Organisation (WHO) and numerous national health authorities repeatedly warn of the risks posed by alcoholic drinks. The data show that there is no safe level of consumption.
The dangers include not only serious illnesses such as cancer and liver disease, but also a host of mental disorders, social problems and premature deaths. The latest statistics – particularly those from 2020 – reveal a sharp rise in alcohol-related harm.
Alcohol as a carcinogenic substance
In 1988, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen – the highest risk category. This was a pivotal moment in the study of alcohol-related health risks. The classification reflects clear evidence from human studies: alcohol causes cancer. The mechanisms by which alcohol triggers cancer are diverse and complex.
Alcohol is metabolised to acetaldehyde, a highly toxic by-product of ethanol that can damage DNA and initiate cancer. Alcohol also increases the production of reactive oxygen species, leading to oxidative stress and further DNA damage.
Alcohol alters hormone levels, especially in women, thereby raising the risk of hormone-related cancers such as breast cancer. Moreover, it weakens the immune system and impairs the absorption of nutrients such as folate, amplifying its carcinogenic potential.
Global cancer statistics for 2020
The latest worldwide estimates for 2020, published in The Lancet Oncology, paint a worrying picture of the link between alcohol consumption and cancer.
According to the study conducted by the IARC, roughly 741,300 new cancer cases (95% uncertainty interval: 558,500–951,200) were directly attributable to alcohol.1
This figure represents 4.1% (3.1–5.3%) of all cancers diagnosed worldwide in 2020. These statistics underscore the fact that alcohol is one of the leading preventable risk factors for cancer.2
The geographical spread of these cases is uneven. The highest proportions of alcohol-attributable cancers (so-called population-attributable fractions, PAFs) were recorded among men in East Asia (9%) and Central & Eastern Europe (8%), and among women in Central & Eastern Europe, Australia/New Zealand and Western Europe (each 3%).
The lowest PAFs were found in North Africa and Western Asia, where alcohol consumption is generally lower for cultural and religious reasons. These regional differences highlight how powerfully cultural norms and societal acceptance of alcohol influence the cancer burden.
Alcohol-related cancers carry a heavy economic price tag. A 2018 WHO study estimated that premature deaths linked to these cancers cost the EU €4.58 billion. This figure does not even cover the full bill – hospital stays, medical treatments, lost working days and productivity losses from other alcohol-related harms are all extra.3
Alcohol causes a vast number of cancer cases and poses a major public-health challenge. The WHO recommends higher alcohol taxes, reduced availability and a ban on alcohol advertising.4
Cancer types with a high risk from alcohol consumption
Scientific evidence shows that alcohol consumption increases the risk of at least seven types of cancer.5
A 2020 global study identified the cancers with the highest number of alcohol-attributable cases: oesophageal cancer with roughly 189,700 cases, liver cancer with 154,700 cases, and breast cancer in women with 98,300 cases.6
These three cancers account for a large share of the alcohol-related cancer burden. The link is clear: oesophageal cancer arises from direct contact with alcohol, liver cancer via alcohol-induced cirrhosis, and breast cancer through raised oestrogen levels.
Further cancers include colorectal and oral-cavity cancers. In 2020, the EU saw roughly 36,900 new alcohol-attributable cases of colorectal cancer and 12,400 of oral-cavity cancer. Mouth, pharynx and larynx cancers are also heavily affected, as alcohol causes direct tissue damage. Alcohol is dangerous because it triggers cancers throughout the body.
There is no safe consumption
Latest research shows: Even moderate alcohol consumption is harmful to health. The global study from 2020 states that light to moderate consumption (up to 20 grams of alcohol per day, approximately one to two drinks) caused over 100,000 new cancer cases worldwide.7
That’s about one-seventh of all alcohol-related cancer cases. Many believe that a daily glass of wine or beer is harmless or even healthy – this is wrong. Science clearly shows: There is no safe level of alcohol consumption when it comes to cancer. Any amount of alcohol increases the risk of cancer.8
The study divides consumption into categories: 86% of cancer cases stem from risky or heavy drinking (over 20 grams per day). But even up to 10 grams of alcohol per day (about one drink) led to 41,300 cancer cases. Prevention campaigns must address not only alcoholism but also the risks of moderate drinking. The clear message: To reduce cancer risk, abstaining from alcohol is the safest option.9 10
Alcohol is a major cause of early deaths worldwide. The WHO states that many people die each year due to their alcohol consumption. These deaths affect not only a specific age group or gender, but men and young adults are particularly impacted. The reasons for alcohol-related deaths are varied and include acute poisonings, accidents, and chronic diseases such as liver cirrhosis, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases.11
Global deaths due to alcohol consumption
According to the WHO report from 2019, approximately 2.6 million deaths worldwide were directly attributable to alcohol consumption. This accounts for 4.7% of all deaths in that year. Alcohol is a major threat to public health. Of these deaths, two million affected men and 0.6 million affected women, indicating a higher risk for men.12
Particularly alarming: In the 20 to 39-year-old age group, alcohol-related deaths accounted for 13% of all deaths. The causes are acute (e.g., alcohol poisoning, traffic accidents) and chronic (e.g., liver diseases, cancer, cardiovascular diseases).
The Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 estimated that alcohol caused 116.0 million lost life years (DALYs), equivalent to 4.6% of global DALYs. Although alcohol-related deaths per 100,000 people decreased by 20.2% from 2010 to 2019, the absolute number remains high due to population growth.13
Regional differences in alcohol-related mortality
The mortality rate due to alcohol consumption varies greatly worldwide. The WHO regions with the highest rates are the European Region with 52.9 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants and the African Region with 52.2 deaths.14
High consumption levels and frequent binge drinking are responsible for this. In the European Union, where alcohol consumption is the highest worldwide, 93,000 people died from alcohol-related cancers in 2020.
This shows: High consumption leads to high mortality. In regions like North Africa and Western Asia, where less alcohol is consumed, mortality rates are lower. Reducing alcohol consumption can significantly lower mortality.
Impact on physical health
Alcohol consumption harms nearly all organ systems. Chronic consumption causes severe heart, liver, and neurological diseases. These illnesses heavily burden those affected and healthcare systems. Treatment is long, costly, and painful. Prevention through reduced alcohol consumption or abstinence is the best protection.
- Cardiovascular diseases:
The relationship between alcohol consumption and cardiovascular diseases is complex and controversially discussed in science. Some older studies suggested that moderate alcohol consumption might protect the heart.
However, newer analyses show that these benefits were due to flaws in the studies. Current science clearly proves: Any amount of alcohol increases the risk of certain cardiovascular diseases. Chronic and heavy alcohol consumption leads to high blood pressure, heart rhythm disorders, cardiomyopathy, and stroke.
In the USA, the number of deaths from alcohol-related cardiovascular diseases rose from 30,814 (2018-2019) to 37,317 (2020-2021). Some studies suggested that moderate consumption might reduce the risk of coronary heart disease through higher HDL cholesterol and blood-thinning effects.
However, newer research shows that these benefits are outweighed by risks for stroke and heart rhythm disorders. The World Heart Federation states that alcohol is not good for heart health. Many health organisations advise against promoting alcohol for a healthy lifestyle.15
- Liver diseases:
The liver processes alcohol and is particularly susceptible to damage from it. Chronic and heavy alcohol consumption causes alcoholic liver disease (ALD), ranging from fatty liver to hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and liver cancer.
According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), liver diseases such as ALD and cirrhosis were a common cause of alcohol-related deaths between 2015 and 2019. The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) estimates that 28% of all deaths from cirrhosis and other liver diseases are attributable to heavy alcohol consumption.16
Cirrhosis of the liver results from years of excessive alcohol consumption, replacing healthy tissue with scar tissue and leading to liver dysfunction. In severe cases, this can result in liver failure and death. People with cirrhosis have a significantly increased risk of liver cancer.
WHO data from 2020 show that liver cancer is one of the most common alcohol-related cancers. Alcohol is a clear trigger for severe, life-threatening liver diseases.17
- Increased risk of dementia:
Alcohol consumption increases the risk of dementia, as shown by a large 2025 study in ‘BMJ Evidence Based Medicine’, which analysed data from the US Million Veteran Program and the UK Biobank. Any amount of alcohol likely elevates the dementia risk.18
The study used observational data and genetic methods and found that the more alcohol consumed, the higher the risk. Previous studies thought moderate drinking reduced dementia risk. This was likely incorrect because people with early cognitive problems often drink less alcohol.
A genetic analysis showed that a one-standard-deviation increase in weekly drinks raises dementia risk by 15%. Doubling alcohol problems increases the risk by 16%. Even small amounts of alcohol do not lower the risk. No alcohol can prevent dementia.19
- Mental illness and addiction:
Drinking alcohol and mental illnesses are closely linked. It works both ways. Sometimes people drink alcohol to alleviate their mental problems like anxiety or depression. This is like self-medication. But alcohol can also cause or worsen mental problems.
Alcohol suppresses the nervous system. This leads to mood swings, anxiety, and sleep problems. When someone drinks a lot of alcohol for a long time, the brain changes. Its structure and function become different. This increases the risk of severe mental illnesses. Alcohol addiction is also called Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD). It is a chronic, recurring illness. People compulsively drink alcohol despite the harm it causes. AUD is very common worldwide. It heavily burdens those affected, their families, and society.
Alcohol has many negative effects on mental health. These effects vary, and there is much evidence for them. People who drink alcohol often have more depression, anxiety disorders, and other mental illnesses.
A study from Australia on mental health from 2020 to 2022 reveals something. 21.5% of people aged 16 to 85 had a mental disorder in the past 12 months. Anxiety disorders were the most common at 17.2%. In this group, 38.8% of young people aged 16 to 24 had a mental disorder in 12 months. This means young people are at high risk.20
The COVID-19 pandemic has made these problems even worse. A 2021 study found this out. People with mental illnesses drank more alcohol during the pandemic. This increase made their mental health worse.
The connection between alcohol and suicide is very concerning. The NIAAA (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism) states that Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) is the second most common mental disorder among people who die by suicide. It is involved in about one in four suicides.21 The CDC (Centres for Disease Control and Prevention) estimates something. 21.0% of people who died by suicide had a blood alcohol level of 0.1% or higher. These numbers mean something. Alcohol is not only a risk for suicide. It also worsens impulse control. 22
- Alcohol dependence (Alcohol Use Disorder):
Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) is a common and severe illness that affects many people. According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), in 2020, approximately 28.3 million people in the USA aged 12 or older had an AUD. This accounts for about 10.2% of the population in this age group.23
Many young adults are particularly affected. The data indicate that 39% of individuals aged 18 to 25 use illegal drugs, with alcohol being one of the most commonly used substances alongside them. Someone who tries an illegal drug before the age of 15 has a 6.5 times higher risk of developing a substance use disorder compared to someone who waits until the age of 21 or later.24
The figures for treatment in the UK show a similar pattern. In the period from 2020 to 2021, 76,740 adults were in treatment for alcohol problems, accounting for about 28% of all adults in treatment for substance issues. In this group, the gender difference was smaller than for drug problems, with 58% men and 42% women. The large number of people needing treatment makes it clear that alcohol consumption is a very significant danger.25
Social and societal consequences
The negative consequences of alcohol consumption extend beyond individual health and affect society as a whole. Alcohol consumption is closely linked to many social challenges, such as violence, crime, inability to work, poverty, and family breakdown.
- Alcohol and violence:
The connection between alcohol consumption and violence is well-documented. Alcohol impairs clear thinking, weakens the ability to control impulses, and can lead to increased aggression in behaviour. The Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO) states that harmful alcohol consumption is associated with many consequences for health and societal life, such as injuries and violence.26 The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reports that alcohol consumption is a risk factor for domestic violence and child abuse.27
Another area where alcohol plays a dangerous and deadly role is in traffic accidents. According to the NIAAA, alcohol-related accidents caused 13,524 deaths in 2022, accounting for 32% of all fatal traffic accidents.28
These figures make it clear that alcohol is a major cause of fatal accidents on the roads. The combination of alcohol-related violence and these accidents highlights the danger that alcohol poses to the safety of all people.
- Impact on family and community:
Alcohol abuse causes deep and destructive harm to families and communities. Children and partners of those affected suffer from emotional, psychological, and physical violence. Such children often develop their own addiction problems and long-term emotional damage later in life. Family cohesion breaks down, leading to separations, divorces, and social decline. These effects impact not only the immediate family but the entire community. Alcohol abuse increases crime, accidents and weakens social cohesion. According to American Addiction Centres, alcohol impairs thinking and physical function, leading to the neglect of responsibilities at work, home, and school. 29
Islam offers a solution
Considering all these problems of alcohol consumption, Islamic teachings show that Islam is a religion that seeks to save people not only spiritually but also in terms of health and society. Islam prohibits the consumption of alcohol.
The Islamic stance on alcohol did not develop suddenly but emerged gradually through a phased revelation in the Quran and Hadith, at a time when alcohol consumption was very widespread in society. Islam has protected individuals, families, and entire communities from the severe negative consequences of alcohol. For this reason, alcohol was declared forbidden, or haram, to safeguard the physical, emotional, and spiritual health of individuals.
- Initial restrictions:
The first stage of revelation regarding alcohol is found in Surah al-Baqarah. In this early phase of Islam, when the society in Medina was still being established and the old habits from the time of ignorance, the so-called jahiliyyah, were still deeply rooted, the believers were given an initial restriction.
يَسْأَلُونَكَ عَنِ الْخَمْرِ وَالْمَيْسِرِ ۖ قُلْ فِيهِمَا إِثْمٌ كَبِيرٌ وَمَنَافِعُ لِلنَّاسِ وَإِثْمُهُمَا أَكْبَرُ مِن نَّفْعِهِمَا
“They ask thee concerning wine and the game of hazard. Say: ‘In both there is great sin and also some advantages for men; but their sin is greater than their advantage.” (Surah al-Baqarah, Ch.2: V.220)
This revelation came as a direct response to the questions of the companions of Prophet Muhammadsa, who inquired about the permissibility of these practices, which were very common in society at the time. The verse acknowledges that alcohol, or khamr, and gambling, maysir, can indeed have some benefits, but also a great evil, referred to as ithm kabir.
The benefit might lie in medicinal advantages, while the evil points to the harmful effects on the individual and the community. However, the core message of the verse lies in the clear weighing: the evil far outweighs the benefit. This initial restriction served as a wake-up call for the believers, urging them to examine their actions more closely and consider the consequences of their behaviour. Some of the companions took this hint seriously and stopped drinking immediately, while others continued their old habit because the verse did not yet pronounce a clear prohibition.
The second stage of restriction was revealed in Surah an-Nisa. This verse introduced a more specific regulation closely tied to the religious practices of Muslims:
يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا لَا تَقْرَبُوا الصَّلَاةَ وَأَنتُمْ سُكَارَىٰ حَتَّىٰ تَعْلَمُوا مَا تَقُولُونَ
“O ye who believe! approach not Prayer when you are not in full possession of your senses, until you know what you say.” (Surah an-Nisa, Ch.4: V44)
The reason for this revelation was a reported incident that clearly demonstrated the dangers of alcohol consumption for the spiritual duties of Muslims. Some companions had drunk alcohol at a feast and were intoxicated when the time for the evening prayer, the Maghrib prayer, arrived. They chose an iam who, due to his drunkenness, recited the Quranic verses incompletely during the prayer. This incident clearly showed that intoxication and the mental clarity required for worship are incompatible.30
Therefore, the verse prohibited believers from performing the prayer in a state of intoxication and emphasised with the words “ until you know what you say” that full mental presence and awareness are essential for connecting with God.
This second stage provided an even stronger indication that alcohol is incompatible with the core of Islamic practice.
The third and final stage of revelation completely and definitively prohibited alcohol. This clear prohibition is found in Surah al-Ma’idah:
يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا إِنَّمَا الْخَمْرُ وَالْمَيْسِرُ وَالْأَنصَابُ وَالْأَزْلَامُ رِجْسٌ مِّنْ عَمَلِ الشَّيْطَانِ فَاجْتَنِبُوهُ لَعَلَّكُمْ تُفْلِحُونَ
“O ye who believe! wine and the game of hazard and idols and divining arrows are only an abomination of Satan’s handiwork. So shun each one of them that you may prosper.” (Surah al-Ma’idah, Ch.5: V91)
These verses are the clearest and strictest statement in the Quran regarding alcohol, ruling out any permission for believers to consume it. These verses are very clear and stringent. Alcohol (khamr) is not only described as something with more harm than benefit but as a rijs (filth) and a tool of Satan.
Alcohol destroys social harmony and the spiritual connection to God. The command fajtanibuhu (Avoid it!) is not advice but a clear order. This verb means to actively and completely stay away from alcohol. The revelation of this verse was a turning point for the Muslim community. When Prophet Muhammad (sa) proclaimed this verse, the believers reacted immediately and decisively.
It is narrated that the streets of Medina overflowed with poured-out wine as people destroyed their stocks.31 This swift and collective response demonstrates the deep acceptance and obedience of the early Muslims to the divine command. The prohibition was now complete and unequivocal.
Hadiths on the topic of alcohol
The Hadiths, the recorded sayings and actions of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (sa), serve as the second major source of Islamic jurisprudence, providing detailed interpretation and supplementation of the Quranic verses. One important topic is alcohol. The Holy Prophet Muhammad (sa) stated clearly: Alcohol is forbidden. Not only drinking it, but also producing or selling it. The statements of Prophet Muhammad (sa) regarding alcohol are clear and leave no room for interpretation. An important principle he established is that any substance that intoxicates in large quantities is also forbidden in small quantities.
مَا أَسْكَرَ كَثِيرُهُ فَقَلِيلُهُ حَرَامٌ
“What intoxicates in large amounts is also Haram in small amounts.”32
This statement is very important because it ends discussions about “safe” or “moderate” alcohol consumption. It recognises the creeping danger of addiction and prevents a single glass from being seen as harmless, as it can lead to dependency. Islam sets a clear boundary to prevent this problem. Another important point of the Hadiths is the curse upon all those who are involved with alcohol.
The Holy Prophet Muhammad (sa) said:
لَعَنَ اللَّهُ الْخَمْرَ وَشَارِبَهَا وَسَاقِيَهَا وَبَائِعَهَا وَمُبْتَاعَهَا وَعَاصِرَهَا وَمُعْتَصِرَهَا وَحَامِلَهَا وَالْمَحْمُولَةَ إِلَيْهِ
“Allah has cursed alcohol – and likewise the one who drinks it, the one who serves it, the one who sells it, the one who buys it, the one who presses it (from fruits), the one for whom it is pressed, the one who transports it, and the one to whom it is transported.”33
This comprehensive curse shows that the prohibition does not only apply to consumers but to the entire chain from production to consumption. It is a mandate for the Muslim community to stay away from alcohol and not participate in its distribution. The curse signifies a distancing from God’s mercy, which is a serious warning for believers. Furthermore, the Hadiths emphasise that alcohol consumption is incompatible with true faith.
Alcohol is also referred to as the “key to all evil” because it clouds judgment and lowers the threshold for other sins, such as adultery, theft, or violence. These statements of the Prophet (sa) demonstrate the holistic view of Islam, which connects body, mind, and spirituality.
The wisdom behind the prohibition
Why does Islam prohibit alcohol? Because it harms the body, mind, and community. Those who drink lose health, reason, and closeness to God. The prohibition simply protects against all of this, and science today confirms this.
Protection of physical and mental health
A primary reason for the alcohol prohibition in Islam is the protection of physical and mental health. Islam teaches that alcohol may have some benefits, such as its use as a solvent in medicine or perfumery. However, the harm, especially when consumed as a recreational substance, far outweighs the benefit. The Quranic statement “In both is great evil and some benefit for people; but their evil is greater than their benefit” reflects a clear weighing that prioritises avoiding harm.
Alcohol consumption is linked to many diseases, which in Islam are considered harmful to the body. This insight was revealed by Islam over 1,400 years ago, long before modern medicine scientifically proved these connections. The impact on mental health is also a key reason. Alcohol impairs mental clarity, judgment, and the ability to think rationally. The intellect (’aql) is a central concept in Islam, enabling individuals to distinguish between good and evil, take responsibility, and gain spiritual insight.
Alcohol, which “covers” the mind (khamr literally means “covering”), is seen as an attack on this essential human quality. It lowers inhibitions and promotes impulsive behaviour, which can lead to further sins and harmful actions.
Islam protects individuals from this loss of mental control, as a clear mind is the foundation for a responsible life and the fulfilment of religious duties.
Preservation of social order and family peace
Preserving social order and family peace is a central reason for the prohibition of alcohol in Islam. The Quran clearly states that Satan seeks to “stir up enmity and hatred among you” through alcohol and gambling. This statement precisely describes the social consequences of alcohol consumption, which are evident today in the form of violence, domestic disputes, divorces, and neglect of children. Islam places great importance on protecting the family as the foundation of society, and anything that threatens this unit is considered a danger.
The wisdom of the prohibition lies in its preventive effect. Islam is a community-oriented faith that prioritises the well-being of the community (Umma) over individual desires. Therefore, it is a societal duty to avoid practices that harm the community. The alcohol prohibition is a clear example of this social ethic. It calls on believers to forgo personal pleasure to protect the well-being of the entire society, especially when that pleasure poses risks to others.
Summary
Scientific evidence: Modern medicine shows that there is no safe level of alcohol consumption. Alcohol causes cancer, including breast, colon, and oesophageal cancer. In 2020, alcohol led to over 741,000 new cancer cases and 2.6 million deaths worldwide.
Social and economic burden: Alcohol causes violence, accidents, domestic violence, and destroys families. The economic costs due to lost productivity, healthcare expenses, and burdens on the justice system are very high.
Islamic wisdom: Islam prohibited alcohol gradually to protect health, social order, and spiritual clarity. The ahadith of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (sa) emphasise the strictness of the prohibition and encompass the entire supply chain.
Alignment of science and faith: Scientific findings confirm the reasons for the Islamic prohibition of alcohol. Today’s health and social consequences align with the warnings of the Quran and Hadith.
Endnotes
1. Harriet Rumgay et al., Global burden of cancer in 2020 attributable to alcohol consumption: a population-based study, The Lancet Oncology, Vol. 22, August 2021, pp. 1071–1080
2. Ibid.
6. Harriet Rumgay et al., Global burden of cancer in 2020 attributable to alcohol consumption: a population-based study, The Lancet Oncology, Vol. 22, August 2021, p. 173
8. U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory on Alcohol and Cancer Risk, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General, January 3, 2025
9. https://ascopost.com/issues/august-25-2025/alcohol-associated-cancer-death-rates-are-climbing/
10. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-00729-5
11. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/alcohol
13. National, regional, and global statistics on alcohol consumption and associated burden of disease 2000–20: a modelling study and comparative risk assessment, The Lancet Public Health, Vol. 10, 2025
14. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/alcohol
15. Alcohol and the global burden of cancer: what are we missing?, The Lancet Oncology, Vol. 22, August 2021, p. 1048
16. https://www.healthdata.org/research-analysis/health-topics/alcohol-use
17. Ibid.
18. Alcohol use and risk of dementia in diverse populations: evidence from cohort, case–control and Mendelian randomisation approaches,” BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine, 2025, p. 1
19. Ibid.
20. National Study of Mental Health and Wellbeing, 2020-2022,” Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2023
21. Berglund M, Ojehagen A. The influence of alcohol drinking and alcohol use disorders on psychiatric disorders and suicidal behavior. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1998;22(7 Suppl):333S-345S
22. Alpert HR, Slater ME, Yoon YH, Chen CM, Winstanley N, Esser MB. Alcohol consumption and 15 causes of fatal injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Prev Med. 2022;63(2):286-300
23. Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2020 National Survey on Drug Use and Health,” Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, October 2021, pp. 1-2
24. Addressing the Critical Health Problem of Adolescent Substance Use Through Health Care, Research, and Public Policy,” Journal of Adolescent Health, Vol. 50, 2012, p. 431
26. https://www.paho.org/en/topics/alcohol
27. Preventing Harmful Alcohol Use, OECD Health Policy Studies, 2021, p. 7
28. National Center for Statistics and Analysis, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Overview of Motor Vehicle Crashes in 2022 [Internet]. Washington: U.S. Department of Transportation; 2024 Apr [cited 2024 May 15], p. 18
29. https://americanaddictioncenters.org/alcohol/support-recovery/family
30. Al-Wahidi, Asbab an-nuzul, Surah an-Nisa’, Hadith 316
31. Sahih Al-Bukhari, Kitab al-mazalim, Bab sabbi al-khamri fi t-tariq, Hadith 2464
32. Sunan Abi-Dawud, Kitab al-ashriba, Bab an-nahy ‘an al-muskir, Hadith 3681
33. Sunan Abi-Dawud, Kitab al-ashriba, Bab al-‘inab yu‘sar lil-khamr, Hadith 3674