Imran Ahsan Karim-Mirza, Bachelor’s English, MPM, MBA, Sydney, Australia
Allah the Almighty states in the Holy Quran that he created us from “a single soul”, for example:
“O ye people! fear your Lord, Who created you from a single soul […]” (Surah an-Nisa’, Ch.4: V.2)
At another place, Allah says:
“And He it is Who has produced you from a single person and there is [for you] a home and a lodging. We have explained the Signs in detail for a people who understand.” (Surah al-An‘am, Ch.6: V.99)
Let us explore the evolution of life and piece together its story from the narratives explained by scientific discoveries over the past few decades and see if we can find the “single soul” from which it all started.
Some atheists might consider this creation a purposeless and directionless venture, where sheer luck created the conditions for life. However, since it did create life – and not just any life – but intelligent life capable of working on complex calculus, understanding the nature of forces, and exploring quantum mechanics, we must view things from the vantage point of this “stroke of luck” called humans.
The big bang and the formation of the universe
A well-accepted theory of the universe posits that approximately 13.8 billion years ago, the universe began with the “Big Bang”, a massive expansion from a singular, extremely hot, and dense point. It is remarkable to note that in our journey of life, the very resources which created life were once crammed into a singular point.
Allah says:
“[He is] the Originator of the heavens and the earth. When He decrees a thing, He does only say to it, ‘Be!’ and it is.” (Surah al-Baqarah, Ch.2: V.118)
In the first fraction of a second, the universe expanded exponentially during a period known as inflation. As the universe continued to expand, it cooled, allowing subatomic particles to form. These particles eventually combined to create simple atoms, primarily hydrogen and helium. These were the very first resources needed for life.
Creation of stars
About 100 million years after the Big Bang, the first stars began to form from clouds of gas. These stars were massive and short-lived, ending their lives in spectacular supernova explosions. Stars are born in nebulae, where gas and dust collapse under gravity to form protostars. Over time, these protostars ignite nuclear fusion in their cores, becoming main-sequence stars. Massive stars end their lives in supernovae, dispersing heavier elements into space. These elements are crucial for forming new stars, planets, and in our case, eventually life.
Our solar system
About 4.6 billion years ago, a giant molecular cloud collapsed to form the solar nebula. The Sun formed at the centre, while the remaining material flattened into a rotating disk. Within this disk, particles collided and stuck together, forming planetesimals. These planetesimals gradually coalesced to form the planets, moons, and other bodies in our solar system. Earth formed through the accretion of planetesimals, and a Mars-sized body later collided with the young Earth, leading to the formation of the Moon.
The elements necessary for life, such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, were primarily formed in stars through a process called nucleosynthesis. Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium are formed in the cores of stars through nuclear fusion. For example, carbon and oxygen are produced in the cores of stars during their lifetimes. When massive stars reach the end of their life cycles, they explode in supernovae. These explosions create and disperse many of the heavier elements, including those necessary for life, into space. The first generation of stars, known as “Population III” stars, were massive and short-lived. They primarily consisted of hydrogen and helium and created the first heavy elements through fusion. Stars like our Sun, during their main sequence phase, fuse hydrogen into helium in their cores. As they evolve, they can fuse helium into heavier elements like carbon and oxygen. In the final stages of massive stars, the core collapses, leading to a supernova explosion. The temperatures and pressures during these explosions are so extreme that they enable the formation of elements heavier than iron.
These processes have been ongoing for billions of years, enriching the interstellar medium with the elements necessary for the formation of planets and life. As we are told in the Quran:
“Blessed is He in Whose hand is the kingdom, and He has power over all things; Who has created death and life that He might try you — which of you is best in deeds; and He is the Mighty, the Most Forgiving. Who has created seven heavens in harmony. No incongruity canst thou see in the creation of the Gracious [God]. Then look again: Seest thou any flaw?” (Surah al-Mulk, Ch.67: V. 2-4)
Again, Allah says:
“‘What is the matter with you that you expect not wisdom and staidness from Allah? ‘And He has created you in [different] forms and [different] conditions. ‘Have you not seen how Allah has created seven heavens in [perfect] harmony.” (Surah Nooh, Ch.71: V. 14-16)
The conditions on earth leading up to the emergence of life were quite extreme and dynamic. During the Hadean Eon, from 4.6 to 4 billion years ago, earth was initially a molten planet with frequent volcanic activity and heavy bombardment by asteroids and comets. The surface was extremely hot, and there was no stable crust or atmosphere. Over time, the planet cooled, allowing a solid crust to form. Water vapor from volcanic outgassing and possibly from comet impacts condensed to form the first oceans. The early atmosphere was likely composed of hydrogen, methane, ammonia, and water vapor, with little to no free oxygen. Since we view things from our angle, we note, “He created man from dry ringing clay [which is] like baked pottery.” (Surah ar-Rahman, Ch.55: V.15)
Around 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ago, during the “Late Heavy Bombardment”, intense asteroid and comet impacts could have delivered organic molecules and water to Earth. By around 4.3 billion years ago, Earth had cooled enough to support liquid water and a more stable environment. Hydrothermal vents and volcanic activity provided the necessary heat and chemical gradients that could have driven the chemical reactions leading to the formation of life. “He created you from clay” as mentioned in the Quran refers to this very humid or moist earth.
The oldest known fossils date back to around 3.7 billion years ago. Life likely emerged in environments such as hydrothermal vents or shallow, warm ponds where conditions were favourable for the formation of complex organic molecules. Experiments like the Miller-Urey experiment have shown that simple organic molecules, such as amino acids, could form under the earth’s conditions. These conditions set the stage for the emergence of life, leading to the diverse biosphere we see today.
What is luca?
Modern-day evidence points to a singular “Last Universal Common Ancestor” (LUCA) of all life, which was likely a single-celled organism with a lipid bilayer membrane. It possessed genetic material, probably in the form of RNA, which it used both to store genetic information and to catalyse chemical reactions. This amazingly sounds like the literal “Single Soul” mentioned in the Quran.
What we can infer from scientific understanding so far is LUCA had a complex metabolism, capable of processes like glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, which are fundamental to energy production in cells. It also had ribosomes, essential for protein synthesis, indicating that LUCA could translate genetic information into functional proteins. LUCA likely lived in an anaerobic (oxygen-free) environment, as early Earth had little to no free oxygen. It may have been a thermophile, thriving in high-temperature environments such as hydrothermal vents. “And the Jinn He created from the flame of fire.” (Surah ar-Rahman, Ch.55: V.16)
LUCA is estimated to have existed around 3.6 to 4 billion years ago. It represents a crucial point in the history of life, providing insights into the early evolution of cellular organisms and the commonalities shared by all life forms today. Yes, by all lifeforms!
LUCA is the root of the tree of life, from which the three domains of life – bacteria, archaea, and eukarya – diverged. Many of LUCA’s genes are still present in modern organisms, indicating its fundamental role in the evolution of life. Studying the DNA imprints of LUCA strongly supports the idea that all life forms on earth share a common ancestor. Researchers have identified genes that are common across all domains of life, suggesting they were inherited from a common ancestor. All known life forms use similar biochemical processes, such as DNA replication, transcription and translation. These processes are so complex and specific that it is highly unlikely they evolved independently in different lineages.
Phylogenetic trees, which map the evolutionary relationships between different organisms, consistently point to a single root, indicating a common origin. By comparing genetic mutations over time, scientists can estimate when different species diverged from their common ancestors. These studies support the existence of LUCA around 3.6 to 4 billion years ago. The genetic and biochemical similarities across all life forms provide strong evidence that they all descended from LUCA. This common ancestry is a fundamental concept in evolutionary biology and helps explain the unity and diversity of life on Earth.
The possibility that the emergence of life could be a unique event on earth is a topic of ongoing scientific debate. However, it challenges a few points raised by our agnostic and atheistic friends. For instance, it is often said that since the key elements necessary for life were in abundance, it was just a matter of time before life emerged. I must point out that the evidence on LUCA refutes this. This “single soul” did emerge once and diversified, not the other way around. If life could have formed spontaneously under favourable conditions, it should have emerged in more dissimilar ways than the evidence suggests.
The geological timeline and life
Let us put the geological history of earth and the evolution of life on earth together and see how we emerge onto the scene.
During the Hadean Eon, from 4.6 to 4 billion years ago, earth was a molten planet with frequent volcanic activity and heavy bombardment by asteroids and comets. No life forms existed during this time.
As the planet transitioned into the Archean Eon, from 4 to 2.5 billion years ago, the first simple, single-celled organisms, known as prokaryotes, appeared during the Eoarchean Era (4 to 3.6 billion years ago). In the Paleoarchean Era (3.6 to 3.2 billion years ago), stromatolites, layered structures created by cyanobacteria, began to form. These cyanobacteria started producing oxygen through photosynthesis during the Mesoarchean Era (3.2 to 2.8 billion years ago). By the Neoarchean Era (2.8 to 2.5 billion years ago), oxygen levels in the atmosphere began to rise, leading to the “Great Oxidation Event”.
The Proterozoic Eon, spanning from 2.5 billion to 541 million years ago, saw significant evolutionary advancements. During the Paleoproterozoic Era (2.5 to 1.6 billion years ago), eukaryotic cells, which have a nucleus, emerged. The Mesoproterozoic Era (1.6 to 1 billion years ago) witnessed the appearance of the first multicellular organisms. In the Neoproterozoic Era (1 billion to 541 million years ago), early complex life forms known as the Ediacaran biota emerged.
The Phanerozoic Eon, from 541 million years ago to the present, is marked by dramatic changes in life on Earth. The Paleozoic Era (541 to 252 million years ago) began with the Cambrian Period (541 to 485 million years ago), characterised by the Cambrian Explosion, which led to a rapid diversification of life, including the first arthropods and mollusks.
During the Ordovician Period (485 to 444 million years ago), marine life flourished, and the first vertebrates appeared. The Silurian Period (444 to 419 million years ago) saw the colonisation of land by the first plants and arthropods. The Devonian Period (419 to 359 million years ago), known as the “Age of Fishes,” saw the rise of diverse fish species and the first amphibians.
Extensive forests of vascular plants formed during the Carboniferous Period (359 to 299 million years ago), and the first reptiles appeared. The Permian Period (299 to 252 million years ago) was marked by the diversification of reptiles and the formation of the supercontinent Pangaea.
The Mesozoic Era (252 to 66 million years ago) is often called the “Age of Dinosaurs.” During the Triassic Period (252 to 201 million years ago), the first dinosaurs and mammals appeared. The Jurassic Period (201 to 145 million years ago) saw dinosaurs dominate the land, and the first birds evolved. Flowering plants emerged during the Cretaceous Period (145 to 66 million years ago), and dinosaurs continued to thrive until their extinction at the end of this period.
Different eras on earth created unique challenges to life on earth and pressures for the natural selection for a better suited group to survive, as the Almighty has said:
“And thy Lord creates whatever He pleases and chooses [whomsoever He pleases]. It is not for them to choose. Glorified be Allah, and far is He above all that they associate [with Him].” (Surah al-Qasas, Ch.28: V.69)
The Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago to present) is known as the “Age of Mammals.” During the Paleogene Period (66 to 23 million years ago), mammals diversified and became the dominant land animals. The Neogene Period (23 to 2.6 million years ago) saw the appearance of early hominids and the spread of grasslands.
Just to emphasise to our non-believing friends, another important fact that emerges from the available evidence is that dinosaurs ruled the earth for over 200 million years, yet nothing triggered the emergence of intelligent life during this vast period. They perished, and only a relative survived, which eventually became the ancestor of mammals and later hominids.
Finally, the Quaternary Period (2.6 million years ago to present) witnessed the emergence of modern humans (Homo sapiens) and the occurrence of the last ice age. It is astounding to note that we occupy just 0.004% of the earth’s entire timeline and barely 0.0014% of the timescale since the universe emerged from the singularity that started it all.
Conclusion
The Rare Earth Hypothesis suggests that the specific conditions that allowed complex life to arise on earth are exceptionally rare in the universe. Factors such as the earth’s stable climate, protective magnetic field, and the presence of liquid water might be uncommon. The unique combination of water, chemistry and temperature cycles on early Earth may have created the perfect environment for life to emerge. Some researchers argue that the emergence of life on earth, while not guaranteed, was a probable event given the right conditions. Considering that there are 200 billion trillion stars in the universe it is quite possible to have intelligent life elsewhere.
Currently, the earth is the only place where we have definitive evidence of life. This makes it challenging to draw conclusions about the uniqueness of life’s emergence without more data from other planets. That is almost impossible considering our limitations to explore the universe due to its vastness. We know well:
“O company of Jinn and men! if you have power to go beyond the confines of the heavens and the earth, then do go. But you cannot go save with authority.” (Surah ar-Rahman, Ch.55: V.34)
There are billions of stars in our own Milky Way, many with planets in the habitable zone. Given the age of the galaxy, some of these civilisations may be far more advanced than ours. Despite the high probability, there is no conclusive evidence of extraterrestrial life or contact with advanced civilisations. We believe that if Allah is the Creator, He must always create, and hence, there must be other intelligent beings in our universe as the Quran states, “The seven heavens and the earth and those that are therein extol His glory; and there is not a thing but glorifies Him with His praise; but you understand not their glorification. Verily, He is Forbearing, Most Forgiving” (Surah Bani Isra‘il, Ch.17: V.45), and “He is Allah, the Creator, the Maker, the Fashioner. His are the most beautiful names. All that is in the heavens and the earth glorifies Him, and He is the Mighty, the Wise.” (Surah al-Hashr, Ch.59: V.25)
The Fermi Paradox is a topic of significant interest and debate in the fields of astronomy, astrobiology, and philosophy. The quest for getting the answers to Fermi’s question “But where is everybody?” continues.
However, the strength of a Muslim’s faith in the word of Allah doesn’t just fortify our belief but inspires us to search for answers. Despite not finding another set of intelligent beings, we now know that if they do exist, they too started their journey from the Big Bang’s singularity. We diversified and emerged from a single being on Earth. Our journey from this “Single Soul” inspires us to seek evidence for all possible diversifications.
“Blessed is He in Whose hand is the kingdom, and He has power over all things; Who has created death and life that He might try you — which of you is best in deeds; and He is the Mighty, the Most Forgiving. Who has created seven heavens in harmony. No incongruity canst thou see in the creation of the Gracious [God]. Then look again: Seest thou any flaw? Aye, look again, and yet again, thy sight will [only] return unto thee confused and fatigued. (Surah al-Mulk, Ch.2: V.2-5)
References
- Encyclopedia Britannica, www.britannica.com, 6 October 2024
- Geologic timeline, www.istockphoto.com, 6 October 2024
- Universal Ancestor of all life on earth, www.newscientist.com, 25 July 2016
- The history of the universe: Big Bang to now in 10 easy steps www.space.com, 2 February 2022
- The Big Bang, History of the Universe, www.exploratorium.edu, 6 October 2024
- Big Bang Timeline, www.physicsoftheuniverse.com, 6 October 2024
- How do stars and planets form and evolve?, www.cfa.harvard.edu, 6 October 2024
- From Dust to Stars: A Guide to The Process of Star Formation, www.starlust.org, 29 December 2022
- The origin of life: The conditions that sparked life on Earth www.researchoutreach.org, 23 December 2019
- The origin of life on Earth, explained, www.news.uchicago.edu, 19 September 2022
- Last universal common ancestor www.semanticscholar.org, 6 October 2024
- Last universal common ancestor, www.britannica.com, 8 November 2024
- Behold LUCA, the Last Universal Common Ancestor of Life on Earth, www.smithsonianmag.com, 26 July 2016
- Rare Earth hypothesis: Why we might really be alone in the universe, www.astronomy.com, 29 July 2022
- How did life on Earth begin? Here are 3 popular theories, www.nationalgeographic.com, 8 March 2024
- Astronomer Calculates The Odds of Life Emerging on Earth, And We May Not Be So Special www.sciencealert.com, 24 May 2020
- Fermi paradox, www.britannica.com, 18 November 2024
- Revelation, Rationality, Knowledge & Truth, www.alislam.org, 6 October 2024